Indian history 1

Indus Valley Civilization

Extent of the civilization

Extent of the IVC

• Centered along the Indus
• Extended into Ghaggar-Hakra and Ganga-Yamuna river valleys
• Encompassed almost entire Pakistan, western India, southeastern Afghanistan and eastern Iran
• Isolated colonies as far away as Turkmenistan
• Coastal sites: Sutkagan Dor (Baluchistan), Lothal (Gujarat)
• Easternmost site: Alamgirpur (near Delhi)
• Island site: Dholavira
• Over 500 sites found in the Ghaggar-Hakra river bed, around 100 along the Indus
• First discovery (accidental): village called Brahminabad between Karachi and Lahore (1856)
• First excavated site: Harappa, by Sir J.H. Marshall (1921-22)
• Latest discovery: Sep 2009, rock engravings indicating Indus Valley culture found in Edakkal caves in Wayanad district of Kerala

Periodisation

Date Range	Phase	Major sites	Important attributes
7000 – 3300 BC	Mehrgarh	Mehrgarh	Cultivation of wheat and barley Proto-dentistry
3300 – 2600 BC	Early Harappan	Balakot Amri Hakra Kot Diji	Arts and crafts
2600 – 1900 BC	Mature Harappan	Harappa Mohenjo-Daro Kalibangan Dholavira Lothal Rupar	Cultivation of peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton Domestication of animals Large urban centres with urban planning Dockyards, granaries, warehouses System of weights and measures in the ratio 4:2:1 Stringed musical instruments Bullock carts Maritime trade with Mesopotamia Burial of the dead
1900-1300 BC	Late Harappan	Harappa	Cremation of the dead Rice becomes main crop Expansion to the east Breakdown of trade Possibly identified with Vedic period

Vedic Period

Sapta Sindhu

River	Vedic Name
Indus	Sindhu
Ghaggar-Hakra	Saraswati
Sutlej	Sutudri
Beas	Vipasha
Jhelum	Vitasta
Ravi	Parusni
Chenab	Asikini

Extent and Age

• Began 2nd millenium BCE, ended around 600 BCE
• Centered around northern and northwestern parts of Indian subcontinent
• Late vedic period marked by rise of Mahajanapadas
• Succeeded by Mauryan Empire

Political Structure

• Polity (rashtra) divided into jana, vis, grama
• Governed by a king, elected from a restricted group of royals. King aided by priest and army chief
• King governed with consent of people
• Two types of assemblies: gana, sabha
  

Society and Economy

• Rigid concept of varna and rules of marriage
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas held higher status than Vaishyas and Shudras
• Early vedic period: Prominence of agriculture, economy based on barter system
• Late vedic period: Agriculture becomes dominant economic activity, long distance trade becomes important

Four Vedas

• Together comprise the Samhitas
• Part of sruti literature (i.e. heard)
• Each Veda contains metrical Mantra and prose Brahmana parts
• Rig Veda contains verses of praise in metre for loud recitation, Yajur Veda prose for recitation at sacrifices, Sama Veda in metre for singing at Soma ceremonies, Atharva Veda
• spells and incantations set in metre and prose

Brahmanas

• Give details and directions for using Mantras at ceremonies, explains legends connected with Mantras and rituals
• Contained as part of the Vedas
• Total of 19 Brahmanas: 2 associated with Rig Veda, 6 with Yajur Veda, 10 with Sama Veda, 1 with Atharva Veda
• Brahmanas led to development of later Hindu philosophy, science, astronomy, linguistics

Aranyakas

• Part of sruti literature
• Considered “wilderness books” givng details of life in the forest
• Similar to Brahmanas: detail proper performance of rituals, especially dangerous ones to be performed in the forest
• Total of 8 Aranyakas
• Surya Namaskara detailed in Taittiriya Aranyaka

Upanishads

• Composed towards the end of the Vedic period
• Constitute core teachings of Vedanta
• Greatly influence Hindu philosophy. Describe Brahman and Atman
• Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is the oldest
• Dara Shikoh (son of Shah Jahan) translated 50 Upanishads into Persian
• Upanishads collectively considered one of the 100 Most Influential Books Ever Written