Indian history 11

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

Overview

• The Rashtrakutas ruled large parts of southern and central India from the 6^th to the 10^th centuries CE
• The Rashtrakutas emerged as a power after overthrowing the Chalukya Kiritivarman II in c. 753 CE
• The Rashtrakutas were based around the Gulbarga region of modern Karnataka
• The capital city of the Rashtrakutas was Manykheta (Karnataka)
• The Rashtrakutas were in continuous conflict with the Palas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries

Extent and lineage

The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora, built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I

• The Rashtrakuta dynasty was established by Dantidurga who overthrew the Chalukyas in 753 CE
• At the height of their power, the Rashtrakutas kingdom included all of Karnataka and Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh
• The most important kings of the Rashtrakutas were Dhruva Dharavarsha (780-793 CE), Govinda III (793-814 CE) and Amogavarsha (800-878 CE)

Administration, economy and society

• The Rashtrakutas issued coins in silver and gold
• The various currency denominations were Suvarnas (silver) and Drammas (gold) weighing 65 grains, Kalanju (48 grains), Gadyanaka (96 grains), Kasu (15 grains), Manjati (2.5 grains) and Akkam (1.25 grains)

Literature

• Kannada literature attained prominence and importance during the reign of the Rashtrakutas
• Kavirajamarga by king Amogavarsha is the earliest available literary work in Kannada. Amoghavarsha also wrote thePrashnottara Ratnamalika, a religious work in Sanskrit
  
• Adipurana, a life history of the first Jain Tirthankara Rishabadeva in Kannada, was written by Pampa (c. 950 CE). Pampa also wrote the Vikaramarjuna Vijaya, based on the Mahabharata story. Pampa is recognised as one of the most famous Kannada writers
  
• Another Jain writer, Sri Ponna, wrote the history of the 16^th Jain Tirthankara Shantinatha, entitled Shantipurana. His other writings in Kannada included Bhuvanaika-Karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale and Gataprataigata
• Trikrama (c. 915 CE) wrote the Nalachampu, Damayanthi Katha and Madalaschampu in Kannada
  

Art and Architecture

• The Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora (Maharashtra) was constructed by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (c. 8^th century CE). The Kailasanatha Temple was carved out of a single rock, and is known for its vertical excavation i.e. it was carved starting from the top and proceeding downwards. The Kailasantha Temple is considered to be the pinnacle of Rashtrakuta architecture
• The Rashtrakutas also built some of the sculptures at the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai
• Other famous Rashtrakuta architecture include the Kasiviswanatha Temple and Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, Karnataka and the Navalinga Temple at Kuknur, Karnataka
• The architectural style used by the Rashtrakutas was primarily Dravidian

THE PALAS

Overview

• The Palas ruled Bengal and much of northern India from the 8^th to the 12^th centuries CE
• The capital cities of the Palas were Pataliputra (Bihar) and Gaur (West Bengal)
• The Palas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Pratiharas for more than two centuries
• The Palas patronized the Buddhist universities at Vikramashila and Nalanda. The Nalanda University reached its height during the reign of the Palas
• Dharmapala constructed the Somapura Mahavira, the biggest Buddhist Vihara in Indian subcontinent. The Somapura Mahavira, located at Paharpur (Bangladesh) is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985)

Extent and lineage

The Somapura Mahavihara, built by the Pala emperor Dharmapala, is the largest Buddhist vihara in the Indian subcontinent. It is located in Paharpur, Bangladesh

• The Pala dynasty was established by Gopala (750-770 CE) who came to power in a democratic election. This event is said to be the first democratic elections in India since the time of the Mahajanapadas
  
• The Pala kingdom reached its peak under Dharmapala (770-810) and Devapala (810-850)
• At its height, the Pala kingdom extended from Assam in the east to Kandahar in the west, and Punjab in the north to the Deccan in the south

Literature

• The earliest development of proto-Bangla language was during the Pala reign
• The Buddhist texts Charyapada were the earliest form of Bangla language. The Charyapada are a collection of mystical poems from the Tantric school of Buddhism
  
• The Buddhist teacher Atisha Dipankara Shrijana wrote over 200 books, primarily translations of Sanskrit Buddhist manuscripts into Tibetan
  
• Sandhyakar Nandi wrote the famous epic poem Ramacharitam in Sanskrit (c. late 11^th century). The Ramacharitam simultaneously narrates the story of the Ramayana as well as events in Bengal during the Pala reign in a poem containing 215 verses
  

PRATIHARAS

Overview

• The Pratiharas ruled much of northern India from the 6^th to the 11^th centuries CE
• Also known as Gurjara Pratiharas, they are associated with the Gujjar tribe and are considered to be Rajputs clans
• The capital city of the Pratiharas were Kannauj and Avanti.
• The Pratiharas used Sanskrit, Marwari and Malwi as official languages
• The Pratiharas were in continuous conflict with the Rashtrakutas and the Palas for more than two centuries
• The Pratiharas are credited with repulsing Arab invasions in western India in the 7^th and 8^th centuries CE
• The Pratiharas weakened over a period of time, due to having to fight the Palas and Rashtrakutas as well as Arab armies from the west
  

Extent and lineage

• The Pratihara dynasty is said to have been founded by Harichandra in the 6^th century
• Nagabhata I (730-756 CE) was the first important ruler. He defeated the advancing Arab armies at the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE)
• Vatsaraja (775-805 CE) sought to capture Kannauj, which brought them into conflict with the Palas and the Rashtrakutas. His attempts were unsuccessful
• Nagabhata II (805-833 CE) rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath which had been earlier destroyed by Junaid of Sind

Conflict with Arab invaders

The Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas and Palas were in continuous conflict for over two centuries. The focal point of the conflict was the Kannauj Triangle.

• The Sind region had been captured by Muhammad bin Qasim in 710 CE
• His successor and Governor of Sind, Junaid, led an invasion into western and northern India in 738 CE
• Junaid was defeated by the Rashtrakutas at Navsari (Gujarat) and by the Pratihara king Nagabhata I at Avanti
• Nagabhata pursued the Arab armies as far as the Indus river ensuring that the Arabs remained on the other side of the Indus
• The Pratiharas acted as a buffer against Arab armies from the west for the next two centuries and are credited with checking Arab advances into India

THE KANNAUJ TRIANGLE

• The Rashtrakutas, Palas and Pratiharas were locked in continuous conflict between the 8^th and 10^th centuries CE
• This tripartite struggle was primarily over control of Kannauj and the fertile Gangetic plains around it
• The earliest known reference to the struggle is from the late 8^th century: Dharmapala defeated the Pratihara king Indraraja and captured Kannauj, only to be defeated by the Pratihara Vatsaraja, who was himself defeated by the Rashtrakuta Dhruva. Dharmapala retrieved Kannauj from the Rashtrakutas, but Kannauj was once again conquered by the Pratihara Nagabhata
• The area around Kannauj, called the Kannauj triangle kept changing hand throughout the tripartite struggle