Indian history 13

THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS

Overview

• This article deals with the later Chalukyas, who ruled south central India including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10^th-12^th centuries CE
• For the earlier Chalukyas who ruled in the 6^th century from Badami, see this earlier article
• The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:
  • Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)
  • Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
• Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami. In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other
• The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into the Chola Empire in the 12^th century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries

WESTERN CHALUKYAS

• The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10^th and 12^th centuries
• The Western Chalukyas came into prominence under Tailapa II after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas in 973 CE.
• The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh
• The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE)
• The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
• A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory shrinking significantly in the mid 11^th century (c. 1050 CE)
• The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 CE

Society under the Western Chalukyas

• The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta kingdom to a large extent
• They minted punch marked gold coins, called Pagodas, with Kannada and Nagari legends
• Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the
  • Manigramam (Cochin)
  • Nagarattar (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)
  • Anjuvannam (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)
  • Ainnurruvar (Aihole, Karnataka) – this was the most powerful guild
• These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions known as Prasasti
• Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
• Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as cardamom, saffron and cloves
• With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had already been in decline in South India since the 8^th century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara
• Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and Kadambahalli, both in Karnataka
  
• The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi, both in Karnataka
  

Literature under the Western Chalukyas

• The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature
• Ranna (c. 980 CE) wrote in Kannada the Saahasabheema Vijayam which narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana, and the Ajitha Purana which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara Ajithanatha
• A unique and native form of Kannada literature called Vachanas developed at this time. They were written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them
• The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, which recounts the life of Vikaramaditya VI
• The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, a treatise on law. The composition, which was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the Indian court system

The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka) was built in 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a general in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI

• The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was mainly in the Karnata Dravida style, drawing from the Dravida style
• The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 7^thcentury and the Hoysala architecture of the 12^thcentury
• The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative details of the Hoysalas
• The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was concentrated around the Tungabhadra region of central Karnataka
• Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

• The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7^th to the 12^th centuries CE
• The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
• The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them by many generations
• The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642 CE
• Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas
• The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas
• Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola Empire in 1130 CE
• The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature
• Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the oldest available literary work in Telugu (mid 11^th century)
  

THE HOYSALAS

Overview

• The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between the 11^th and 14^thcenturies
• The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu
• The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture
• Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature
• The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 CE), however were still subordinate to the Western Chalukyas at the time
• Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera Ballala II (c. 1187-1193 CE)
• Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. They resisted invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until 1343, and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming Vijayanagara Empire

The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 CE by the Hoysala ruler Narasimha III

Economy, society and administration

• The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors
• Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers for foreign affairs were called Sandhivigrahi, chief treasurer Mahabhandari. Chief of army wasDandanayaka and Chief Justice was Dharmidhakari
• Administrative divisions included Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha in descending order of their size.
• An elite and well trained force of personal bodyguards called Garudasprotected the royal family at all times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. Hero stones erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars
• The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. Hoysala period is known for the preachings of Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya, well known Vaishnava saints

Literature

• Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas
• In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote Yashodhacharite, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity
• Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote Jagannatha Viajaya, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his battle with demon Banasura
• Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote Girijakalyana which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati
• In Sanskrit, Madhavacharya wrote the Rigbhasya on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas

Architecture

• The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples
• The Hoysala architectural style, called Karnata Dravida, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which borrowed from the Dravida style
• A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This high level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction
• Important temples include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

Temple	Location	Built by	Notes
Chennakesava Temple	Belur (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana (c. 1117 CE)	Deity is Vishnu Unusually large compared to other Hoysala temples
Hoysaleswara Temple	Halebidu (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana	Deity is Shiva Famous for extremely articulate and detailed sculptures Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera Ballala II
Kesava Temple	Somanathapura (Karnataka)	Narasimha III (c. 1268 CE)	Deity is Vishnu

THE (LATER) PANDYAS

• The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian dynasties
• The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3^rd century BC-3^rd century CE), and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams
• However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominence in the 13^th century, and about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidence is available
• Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai
• After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13^th century (1216-1238 CE). In 1217 CE, Maravarman Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending centuries of Chola suzerainty in southern India
  
• At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the south
• The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 CE) who dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline
• Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of Pon Veindha Perumalfor gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam. He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of Tamil Nadu i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each
• The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din-Khilji, who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.
• The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 CE by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 CE
• Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 CE, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the British in 1736 CE