LOKPAL BILL

Salient features of Jan Lokpal Bill and comparing it with Govt's Lokpal Bill

The Jan Lokpal Bill (Citizen's ombudsman Bill) is a draft anti-corruption bill that would pave the way for a Jan Lokpal, an independent body like the Election Commission, which would have the power to prosecute politicians and bureaucrats without government permission. The bill has been drafted by Shanti Bhushan, former IPS Kiran Bedi, Justice N. Santosh Hegde, renowned advocate Prashant Bhushan, former chief election commissioner J. M. Lyngdoh in consultation with the leaders of the India Against Corruption movement and the civil society. The bill proposes institution of the office of Lokpal (Ombudsman) at center and Lok Ayukta at state level. Jan Lokpal Bill is designed to create an effective anti-corruption and grievance redressal systems at centre and to assure that effective deterrent is created against corruption and to provide effective protection to whistleblowers. The Lokpal Bill drafted by the government is pending to be passed in the Rajya Sabha since 42 years.The first Lokpal Bill was passed in the 4th Lok Sabha in 1969 but could not get through in Rajya Sabha, subsequently, Lokpal bills were introduced in 1971, 1977, 1985, 1989, 1996, 1998, 2001, 2005 and in 2008, yet they were never passed and its pending.

1.     An institution called LOKPAL at the centre and LOKAYUKTA in each state will be set up

2.    Like Supreme Court and Election Commission, they will be completely independent of the governments. No minister or bureaucrat will be able to influence their investigations.

3.    Cases against corrupt people will not linger on for years anymore: Investigations in any case will have to be completed in one year. Trial should be completed in next one year so that the corrupt politician, officer or judge is sent to jail within two years.

4.    The loss that a corrupt person caused to the government will be recovered at the time of conviction.

5.    How will it help a common citizen: If any work of any citizen is not done in prescribed time in any government office, Lokpal will impose financial penalty on guilty officers, which will be given as compensation to the complainant.

6.    So, you could approach Lokpal if your ration card or passport or voter card is not being made or if police is not registering your case or any other work is not being done in prescribed time. Lokpal will have to get it done in a month’s time. You could also report any case of corruption to Lokpal like ration being siphoned off, poor quality roads been constructed or panchayat funds being siphoned off. Lokpal will have to complete its investigations in a year, trial will be over in next one year and the guilty will go to jail within two years.

7.    But won’t the government appoint corrupt and weak people as Lokpal members?That won’t be possible because its members will be selected by judges, citizens and constitutional authorities and not by politicians, through a completely transparent and participatory process.

8.    What if some officer in Lokpal becomes corrupt? The entire functioning of Lokpal/ Lokayukta will be completely transparent. Any complaint against any officer of Lokpal shall be investigated and the officer dismissed within two months.

9.    What will happen to existing anti-corruption agencies? CVC, departmental vigilance and anti-corruption branch of CBI will be merged into Lokpal. Lokpal will have complete powers and machinery to independently investigate and prosecute any officer, judge or politician.

10.  It will be the duty of the Lokpal to provide protection to those who are being victimized for raising their voice against corruption.

Indian hishory 15

DELHI SULTANATE

Overview

• The Delhi Sultanate was a period from the 13^th to the 16^th centuries when several Turkic and Afghan dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi
• The dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate were
  • Mamluk dynasty (1206-1290)
  • Khilji dynasty (1290-1320)
  • Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413)
  • Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
  • Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
• The Delhi Sultanate was established upon the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 CE and was absorbed by the newly emerging Mughal Empire in 1526 CE

Mamluk Dynasty

• Also known as the Slave Dynasty, the Mamluk dynasty was the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and ruled from 1206-1290 CE
• The Mamluks were essentially a Turkic people
• It was established by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak, a slave and general of Muhammad Ghori, who took over Ghori’s Indian territories following the latter’s death in 1206 CE
• Important rulers of the Mamluk dynasty include
  • Qutub-ud-din-Aybak (1206-1210 CE)
  • Shams-ud-din-Iltutmish (1211-1236)
  • Razia Sultana (1236-1240)
  • Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban (1266-1287)
• The Qutub Minar (New Delhi) was commissioned by Qutub-ud-din-Aybak in 1193 CE. At 72.5 m, it is the world’s tallest brick minaret and is one of the earliest and most prominent examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. It is part of the Qutub Complex – a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  
• Balban’s tomb is located in Mehrauli, New Delhi
• The Sultan Ghari, also in New Delhi, is the oldest Islamic mausoleum in India. It was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud in 1231 CE
• Razia Sultana was the first female ruler of a Muslim kingdom anywhere in the world

Khilji Dynasty

• The Khiljis were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate. They ruled north and northwestern India 1290-1320 CE
• They were Turko-Afghan people
• The greatest ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Ala-ud-din-Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
• Khilji attacked Chittor in 1303 after hearing of the beauty of queen Padmini, wife of king Rawal Ratan Singh. This event is the setting of the epic poem Padmavat written by Malik Muhammad Jayasi (in 1540 CE), in the Awadhi language
• Khilji’s plunder of Gujarat in 1297 CE is noted for the loot of the Somnath temple and the destruction of the Sivalingam into pieces.
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji is noted for the first Muslim invasions of southern India. Khilji’s general, Malik Kafur, conquered Devagiri and Warangal, caused the collapse of the Hoysalas, and went as far south as Madurai, which was occupied for a brief period of time
• Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s most important achievement was repelling repeated Mongol invasions of India between 1294 CE and 1308 CE,which would inevitably have brought destruction and devastation on a colossal scale

Tughlaq Dynasty

• The Tughlaq dynasty ruled from 1321 to 1394 CE
• They were of Turkic origin
• The Tughlaq dynasty was founded by Ghiyas al-din Tughlaq in 1321 CE
• The most important ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351 CE)
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a renown scholar, was tolerant towards other religions and an innovative administrator. However, his experiments in reforming public administration often failed, earning him much satire
• He was responsible for the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate southwards into the Deccan region
  
• In order to strengthen his hold on newly conquered territories in peninsular India, Muhammad bin Tughlaq moved the capital of the Sultanate from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra (which was renamed Daulatabad). Due to poor planning and facilities, the capital had to be moved back to Delhi two years later.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq also introduced copper-based token currency, the first such experiment in India. Although the copper currency was backed by gold and silver in government reserves, the switch was not embraced by the public and the experiment had to be abandoned
  
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was succeeded by his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388 CE). Firoz Shah Tughlaq re-built the top two storeys of the Qutub Minar with white marble, when the earlier structure was partially destroyed by lightning

Sayyid Dynasty

• The Sayyid dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1414 CE to 1451 CE
• The Sayyid’s came to power following a power vacuum induced by Timur’s invasion and devastation of Delhi in 1398 CE

Lodi Dynasty

• The Lodi dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 CE to 1526
• They were of Afghan origin
• The Lodi dynasty was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi in 1451 CE
• Sikandar Lodi (1489 CE-1517) founded the city of Agra in 1504. He attacked Gwalior five times but was repulsed each time by Maharaja Mansingh of Gwalior
• The last ruler of the Lodi dynasty was Ibrahim Lodi (1489 CE-1526).
• Ibrahim Lodi was defeated by the Afghan Mughal Babur in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. With this, the Delhi Sultanate was dissolved and the Mughal Empire was established
  

Legacy of the Delhi Sultanate

• Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was insulating the Indian subcontinent from the devastation of Mongol invasions in the 13^th century
• However, the Delhi Sultanate failed to prevent the sacking of Delhi by Timur (aka Tamerlane). Timur sacked and pillaged Delhi in 1398 CE, leading to widespread devastation and destruction
• The Delhi Sultanate established a network of market centres through which traditional village economies were both exploited and stimulated
• Agricultural practices of shifting to cash crops (like sugarcane) instead of food crops were encouraged

DECCAN SULTANATES

Overview

• The Deccan Sultanates were five Muslim ruled kingdoms located in the Deccan plateau
• They ruled south central India from 1527 to 1686
• The Deccan Sultanates were established following the breakup of the Bahmani Sultanate in 1527
• The five kingdoms of the Deccan Sultanates were
  • Ahmadnagar (1490-1636)
  • Bijapur (1490-1686)
  • Berar (1490-1572)
  • Golkonda (1518-1687)
  • Bidar (1528-1619)
• The Deccan Sultanates were generally rivals but united against the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Tallikota in 1565
• An important cultural contribution of the Deccan Sultanates was the development of Dakhani Urdu – drawn from Arabic, Persian, Marathi, Kannada and Telugu
• The period is also famous for the development of Deccani miniature paintings, which flourished in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golkonda

Ahmadnagar Sultanate

• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was located in northwestern Deccan, between the Gujarat and Bijapur sultanate
• The Sultanate was established by Malik Ahmad in 1490, who founded the Nizam Shahi dynasty
• The capital city of the Sultanate was initially Junnar, which was later shifted to Ahmadnagar
• The earliest examples of miniature paintings are found in the manuscript Tarif-i-Hussain Shahi (c. 1565)
• This period is also known for the encyclopaedia Nrisimha Prasada written by Dalapati
• The Ahmadnagar Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb (during the reign of Shah Jahan) in 1636

Berar Sultanate

• The Berar Sultanate was established by Imad-ul Mulk in 1490
• It was annexed by the Ahmadnagar Sultanate in 1572

Bidar Sultanate

• The Bidar Sultanate was established by Qasim Barid in 1490
• Bidar was sandwiched between the Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda sultanates
• Bidar was annexed by Ibrahim Adil Shah II of the Bijapur Sultanate in 1619
• An important type of metalwork called Bidri originated in Bidar. These metalworks were carried out on black metal (mainly zinc) with inlaid designs of silver, brass and copper
  

Bijapur Sultanate

• The Bijapur Sultanate was established by Yusuf Adil Shah in 1490, who founded the Adil Shahi dynasty
• The Bijapur Sultanate was located in northern Karnataka, with its capital at Bijapur
• Under the Adil Shahi dynasty, Bijapur became an important centre of commerce and culture in India
• The Begum Talab was a 234 acre tank constructed by Mohammad Adil Shah in 1651 in memory of Jahan Begum. Underground pipes, encased in masonry supplied water from the tank to the city residents
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II wrote a book of songs in Dakhani urdu called Kitab-i-Navras. This work contains a number of songs set to different ragas
• The Bijapur Sultanate was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1686

Golconda Sultanate

• The Golconda Sultanate was established in 1518 by Qutb-ul-Mulk, who founded the Qutb Shahi dynasty
• The Golconda Sultanate was located in northern Andhra Pradesh
• The capital city was Hyderabad
• The Qutb Shahi dynasty was responsible for the construction of the Jami Masjid (1518), Charminar (1591) and Mecca Masjid (1617)
• Another famous structure from the period is the fort of Golconda
• The Shahi dynasty was instrumental in the development of Dakhani urdu
• Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah wrote the Kulliyat-i-Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah in Dakhani urdu
• Golconda was annexed into the Mughal Empire by Aurangzeb in 1687

Indian history 14

EARLY MUSLIM CONQUESTS IN INDIA

Overview

• Muslim conquests in India started in the 12^th century. However, periodical raids into India started as early as the 7^th century
• The earliest Muslim foray into India occurred in 664 CE by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah, the governor of Khorasan (Iran) under the Ummayad Caliphate
• Invasions into India were carried out from the northwest over a period of centuries by Arabs, Turkic, Mongol and Turco-Mongol peoples

Impact of Muslim conquests

• The presence of Islamic governments from Spain/Morocco to Indonesia facilitated trade and enabled the establishment of a common legal system
• Ceramic tiles were introduced into India based on architectural designs in Persia and Central Asia
• Blue pottery (famous in Rajasthan) was cultivated by Muslim rulers who imported it in large quantities from China
• Numerous Indian scientific and mathematical advancements, including the numeral system, spread to the rest of the world
• Islamic languages were modified on contact with local languages to produce Urdu, which uses Persian words in the Arabic script

Conquest during the Rashudin Caliphate

• The Rashudin Caliphate was founded immediately after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. At its height, the Rashudin Caliphate extended from North Africa to Persia, and parts of Afghanistan/Baluchistan
• During Rashudin Caliphate, significant conquests were made northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, especially areas like Makran and Sindh (in Pakistan)
• These early conquests were primarily an extension of campaigns to conquer and annex the Sassanid Persian empire in the mid seventh century
• Islamic forces first entered Sindh in 644 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, and established the eastern frontier of the Caliphate as the Makran region in Baluchistan

Conquest during the Ummayad Caliphate

• The Umayyad Caliphate was the second and largest of the four major Caliphates established following Muhammad’s death. It was established in 660 CE. At its height, it extended from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain/Portugal) to northwestern India
• In 712 CE, the Umayyad Caliphate sent an expedition under Muhammad bin Qasim, who defeated Raja Dahir of Sindh. He then annexed territory from Karachi to Multan.
• This was the first significant Islamic expansion into traditionally Indian territories
• The main objective of the expedition was the Sun Mandir at Multan, known as the ‘City of Gold’ due to its wealth
• Qasim was immediately recalled to Baghdad by the Caliph, and the newly acquired territories were then administered by weak governors who only nominally acknowledged Arab authority
• Qasim’s successor, Junaid, was then defeated by a conglomeration of Hindu Rajput clans, including the Pratiharas, in the Battle of Rajasthan (738 CE). Following this defeat, Islamic expansion into India was stopped at the Indus for the next three centuries
• Multan became a centre of the Islmaili sect of Islam
• The northern regions comprising the Punjab remained under the control of Hindu kings, while the southern regions comprising Baluchistan, Sindh and Multan passed into Muslim control

Mahmud of Ghazni

• Mahmud of Ghazni was the most prominent ruler of the Turkic Ghaznavid dynasty
• He ruled from 997 CE  to 1030 CE
• The capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty was Ghazni in Afghanistan
• At its height, the Ghaznavid territories included most of Iran and Pakistan and parts of northwestern India
• Mahmud Ghazni was the first ruler to carry the title Sultan
• Ghazni’s first expansion into India was his conquest of the Hindu Shahi dynasty which ruled Lahore and parts of Kashmir. Ghazni defeated and conquered Raja Anandapala of the Shahi dynasty in 1008 CE
• Over the next decade, Ghazni conquered the kingdoms of Nagarkot, Thanesar, Gwalior and Ujjain

Muhammad of Ghor

• Muhammad of Ghor (also known as Muhammad Ghori) was the sultan of the Ghorid dynasty centred in Afghanistan. Ghori ruled from 1202 to 1206 CE
• His capital was the city of Ghor in Afghanistan
• Muhammad Ghori defeated and dissolved the Ghaznavid dynasty in 1186 CE, thereby establishing the Ghorid dynasty
• He initially ruled as governor under his brother Ghiyas ud-Din Muhammad, and later became king following the latter’s death in 1202
• Ghori extended Islamic rule in India much further east than the earlier Ghaznavid kingdom
• Muhammad Ghori was defeated by Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer at the First Battle of Tarain (Haryana) in 1191 CE
• The next year, Ghori once again attacked and this time defeated Chauhan at the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 CE
• Following this, Ghori captured the Rajput kingdoms of Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi. Ghori also captured Ajmer and Delhi, thereby ending Hindu rule in Delhi, with Prithviraj Chauhan becoming the last Hindu ruler of Delhi
• Since he had no heirs, Ghori’s kingdom passed into the hands of his Turkic slaves upon his death in 1206 CE. One of his slaves, Qutbuddin Aybak, took control of Ghori’s Indian territories and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206, the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate

Indian history 13

THE (LATER) CHALUKYAS

Overview

• This article deals with the later Chalukyas, who ruled south central India including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in the 10^th-12^th centuries CE
• For the earlier Chalukyas who ruled in the 6^th century from Badami, see this earlier article
• The later Chalukyas were divided into two contemporaneous kingdoms:
  • Western Chalukyas who ruled from Kalyani (Karnataka)
  • Eastern Chalukyas who ruled from Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
• Both the Western Chalukyas and Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami. In a sense they were cousins, but they were in conflict with each other
• The Eastern Chalukyas were allied with the Cholas, and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was absorbed into the Chola Empire in the 12^th century. On the other hand, the Western Chalukyas were bitterly opposed to the Cholas, and the two were in constant conflict for over two centuries

WESTERN CHALUKYAS

• The Western Chalukyas ruled most of the western Deccan between the 10^th and 12^th centuries
• The Western Chalukyas came into prominence under Tailapa II after overthrowing the Rashtrakutas in 973 CE.
• The capital of the Western Chalukyas was Kalyani (Karnataka). Their territories included most of Karnataka, almost all of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh
• The most important ruler of the Western Chalukyas was Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE)
• The Western Chalukyas were in constant conflict with the Cholas over control of the fertile region of Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
• A series of defeats by the more powerful Cholas gradually weakened the kingdom, with its territory shrinking significantly in the mid 11^th century (c. 1050 CE)
• The continuous wars with the Cholas eventually exhausted the Western Chalukyas, and the dynasty was overthrown by feudatories including the Hoysalas in 1190 CE

Society under the Western Chalukyas

• The Western Chalukyas followed the administrative and social set up of the preceding Rashtrakuta kingdom to a large extent
• They minted punch marked gold coins, called Pagodas, with Kannada and Nagari legends
• Merchants organised themselves into large guilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars. Powerful guilds included the
  • Manigramam (Cochin)
  • Nagarattar (Nagapattinam, Tamil Nadu)
  • Anjuvannam (Poompuhar, Tamil Nadu)
  • Ainnurruvar (Aihole, Karnataka) – this was the most powerful guild
• These trade guilds fiercely protected their trade interests and recorded their achievements in inscriptions known as Prasasti
• Trade ties flourished with Magadha, Nepal, Cambodia, Persia, China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
• Important trade items included precious stones like diamond, emeralds, topaz etc and spices such as cardamom, saffron and cloves
• With the rise of the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas, patronage for Jainism declined. Buddhism had already been in decline in South India since the 8^th century following the preachings of the Adi Shankara
• Jainism gradually declined and only flourished in two regions: Shravanabelagola and Kadambahalli, both in Karnataka
  
• The only places of Buddhist worship that remained were Dambal and Balligavi, both in Karnataka
  

Literature under the Western Chalukyas

• The Western Chalukyas patronised Kannada and Sanskrit literature
• Ranna (c. 980 CE) wrote in Kannada the Saahasabheema Vijayam which narrates the duel between Bhima and Duryodhana, and the Ajitha Purana which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankara Ajithanatha
• A unique and native form of Kannada literature called Vachanas developed at this time. They were written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple language to be understood by the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi and Allama Prabhu are famous among them
• The Kashmiri poet Bilhana wrote the Vikramankadeva Charita in Sanskrit, which recounts the life of Vikaramaditya VI
• The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara wrote the Mitakshara, a treatise on law. The composition, which was based on earlier writings, was later translated into English by the British and given currency in the Indian court system

The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi (Karnataka) was built in 1112 CE by Mahadeva, a general in the army of the Western Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI

• The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was mainly in the Karnata Dravida style, drawing from the Dravida style
• The Western Chalukya architecture formed a link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 7^thcentury and the Hoysala architecture of the 12^thcentury
• The vimana of their temples is a compromise between the plain style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative details of the Hoysalas
• The architecture of the Western Chalukyas was concentrated around the Tungabhadra region of central Karnataka
• Notable temples include Mahadevi Temple at Itagi, Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and Kallesvara Temple at Bagali

EASTERN CHALUKYAS

• The Eastern Chalukyas ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh from the 7^th to the 12^th centuries CE
• The capital city was Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
• The Eastern Chalukyas were descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi), but outlived them by many generations
• The Eastern Chalukyas developed as an independent kingdom following the death of Pulakesin II in 642 CE
• Much weaker than their distant cousins and rivals the Western Chalukyas, the Eastern Chalukyas formed a close marital alliance with the Cholas
• The fertile Vengi region of the Eastern Chalukyas was the principal cause of continuous conflict between the Western Chalukyas and the Cholas
• Following generations of intermarriage, the Eastern Chalukya kingdom was merged into the Chola Empire in 1130 CE
• The Eastern Chalukyas were instrumental in the development of Telugu literature
• Nannaya Bhatta’s Mahabharata is the oldest available literary work in Telugu (mid 11^th century)
  

THE HOYSALAS

Overview

• The Hoysalas ruled Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu between the 11^th and 14^thcenturies
• The capital city of the Hoysalas was Belur, but later moved to Haleibidu
• The Hoysalas are noted especially for their magnificent temple architecture
• Hoysalas were also instrumental in encouraging Kannada literature
• The Hoysalas rose to prominence under Vishnuvardhana (c. 1120 CE), however were still subordinate to the Western Chalukyas at the time
• Overthrowing the Western Chalukyas, the Hoysalas became an independent kingdom under Veera Ballala II (c. 1187-1193 CE)
• Among contemporary South Indian kingdoms, the Hoysalas were the last to fall to Muslim invasions from the north. They resisted invasions by Alla-ud-din-Khilji’s general Malik Kafur until 1343, and the kingdom was then absorbed into the newly forming Vijayanagara Empire

The Somathapura Temple at Somanathapura (Karnataka) was built in 1268 CE by the Hoysala ruler Narasimha III

Economy, society and administration

• The Hoysala economy, society and administration pretty much followed that of its predecessors
• Senior ministers were called Pancha Pradhanas, ministers for foreign affairs were called Sandhivigrahi, chief treasurer Mahabhandari. Chief of army wasDandanayaka and Chief Justice was Dharmidhakari
• Administrative divisions included Nadu, Vishaya, Kampana and Desha in descending order of their size.
• An elite and well trained force of personal bodyguards called Garudasprotected the royal family at all times. Their loyalty was so complete that they committed suicide upon the master’s death. Hero stones erected in memory of these bodyguards are called Garuda pillars
• The Hoysala rulers were mainly Vaishnavites. Hoysala period is known for the preachings of Ramanujacharya, Basavanna and Madhavacharya, well known Vaishnava saints

Literature

• Although Sanskrit remained popular, Kannada literature was particularly favoured by the Hoysalas
• In 1209, Jaina scholar Janna wrote Yashodhacharite, a story of a king who intends to sacrifice two young boys to a local deity
• Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin, wrote Jagannatha Viajaya, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his battle with demon Banasura
• Harihara, a Vaishnava, wrote Girijakalyana which describes the marriage of Lord Shiva to Parvati
• In Sanskrit, Madhavacharya wrote the Rigbhasya on Brahmasutras, a logical explanation of the Vedas

Architecture

• The Hoysalas are best known for their architecture, especially in building temples
• The Hoysala architectural style, called Karnata Dravida, was an offshoot of the Chalukya style, which borrowed from the Dravida style
• A prominent feature of Hoysala architecture is attention to detail and skilled craftsmanship. This high level of detail was achieved using soapstone for construction
• Important temples include the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura

Temple	Location	Built by	Notes
Chennakesava Temple	Belur (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana (c. 1117 CE)	Deity is Vishnu Unusually large compared to other Hoysala temples
Hoysaleswara Temple	Halebidu (Karnataka)	Vishnuvardhana	Deity is Shiva Famous for extremely articulate and detailed sculptures Contains a Garuda pillar in honour of Kuruva Lakshma, bodyguard of Veera Ballala II
Kesava Temple	Somanathapura (Karnataka)	Narasimha III (c. 1268 CE)	Deity is Vishnu

THE (LATER) PANDYAS

• The Pandyas, along with the Cheras and the Cholas, are considered to be among the oldest Indian dynasties
• The Pandyas are mentioned as the hosts of the third Tamil Sangam (3^rd century BC-3^rd century CE), and as hosts of the supposedly even earlier first two Sangams
• However, this article only deals with the later Pandyas, who rose to prominence in the 13^th century, and about whom concrete literary, archaeological and epigraphical evidence is available
• Throughout their existence, the capital city of the Pandyas was Madurai
• After several centuries of submission under the Cholas, the Pandyas rose to prominence under the Maravarman Sundara Pandyan in the 13^th century (1216-1238 CE). In 1217 CE, Maravarman Pandyan defeated the Chola monarch Rajaraja III, thereby ending centuries of Chola suzerainty in southern India
  
• At its peak, the Pandyan kingdom extended from the Godavari in the north to northern Sri Lanka in the south
• The Pandyan kingdom reached its zenith under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan (1250-1268 CE) who dissolved the Chola Empire, which had already been in decline
• Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan was given the title of Pon Veindha Perumalfor gold plating the roofs of the Chidambaram Temple and the Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam. He also built a gate at the Srirangam Temple engraving the names of all four dynasties of Tamil Nadu i.e. Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas, recognising the contribution of each
• The Pandyan kingdom was disestablished in 1311 following defeat by Malik Kafur, the general of Alla-ud-din-Khilji, who was on an expedition to subjugate South India.
• The city of Madurai passed to the Madurai Sultanate, established in 1335 CE by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din Ahsan. However, the Sultanate itself was dissolved by the rising Vijayanagara Empire in 1375 CE
• Following this, Madurai was ruled by Nayaks, governors of the Vijayanagara Empire. Following the collapse of Vijayanagar in 1646 CE, the Nayaks ruled Madurai independently until the arrival of the British in 1736 CE